Radiation measurement instruments Patient doses in the healing arts Operational health physics Bioassay and radiobiological data Radiation dosimetry Nuclear transportation including shipment of low-level waste Ionizing radiation bioeffects and risks Non-ionizing radiation Glossaries.
Bibliographic information. Publication date Title variation Health physics and radiological health [print] Note Includes index. Related items Prev. Browse related items Start at call number: R H43 GOV Book: The health physics and radiological health handbook. Title: The health physics and radiological health handbook.
Full Record Other Related Research. Abstract This handbook was conceived in order to fill the need of health physics practitioners, technicians, and students for an easy to use, practical handbook containing health physics and radiological health data.
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Handbook of health physics and radiological health Item Preview. EMBED for wordpress. Want more? Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! Estimates of radiation doses from various sources of exposure -- 2. Commonly used units, signs, symbols, conversion factors and constants -- 3. There are three primary sources of natural background radiation:. Natural sources of radiation account for about half of the annual dose of the average American.
The other half comes from manmade sources such as diagnostic x-rays and consumer products. Over the course of a year, the average American will receive about 0. To effectively reduce any radiation dose, for each type of ionizing radiation, you will need to know:.
Alpha particles are capable of imparting large amounts of energy in a short range or path. Along with a very short range, Alpha particles can be stopped by a thin material such as a sheet of paper or the outer, dead layer of skin. There is, therefore, little to no external hazard, as alpha particles are generally easily shielded.
However, since alpha particles can easily ionize the atoms they do encounter, they can pose a large internal hazard if inhaled or ingested. Alpha particles can impart substantial amounts of energy in human tissue if inhaled or ingested.
Both types of beta particles come from the nucleus, and are capable of causing ionization. The range of beta particles is much larger than that of alpha particle due to their much smaller mass. Beta particles can have a range of up to approximately 20ft in air. When working with beta emitters, it is important to use proper shielding. Although beta particles can be shielded by metallic materials, such as lead or aluminum foil, it is not recommended to shield betas with metals, as there will be a generation of unwanted Bremsstrahlung x-rays.
For positron, or beta positive emitters, the primary hazard is the photons that are emitted due to the annihilation that occurs when a positron encounters an electron.
Positrons should, therefore be shielded as photons, which will be covered on the next section. Beta negative particles pose a significant external hazard to the skin and lens of the eye. Precautions must be taken to ensure any contact to the skin is avoided. Limit any unshielded time with the material. They can also pose an internal hazard if inhaled or ingested, but to a lesser extent than the hazard associated with alpha particles. Photons that come from radioactive sources, more commonly referred to as gamma rays or x-rays, contain no mass and no charge, but are high energy.
They are capable of traveling a very large distance in air. High-energy photons require high density materials to be shielded, such as steel or concrete. Lower energy photons, such as x-rays, can be shielded with materials with high atomic numbers such as lead.
The thickness of these shields will vary depending on the energy and activity of the photon source. High-energy photons can penetrate the body, affecting any organ. This penetration ability creates a significant external and internal dose hazard. Neutrons are uncharged, and are ejected from the nucleus due to extreme instability of the atom.
Neutrons can travel very far in air, up to hundreds of feet. Neutrons are best shielded by hydrogen dense materials, therefore special shielding materials must be utilized, these include water, borated plastics and concrete. Neutrons can deposit large doses, and can pose a significant external hazard.
Neutron sources are unique in their characteristics and their usage must involve close work with the Health Physics Service to ensure proper dosimetry and shielding. Safe use of radioactive materials and sources of ionizing radiation means more than simple adherence to the regulations and recommendations of standards-setting agencies. Current regulations reflect the viewpoint that some degree of risk may be associated with any exposure to radiation.
Time : Limit the time spent manipulating the material, or standing near x-ray producing equipment that is operating. Distance : Increase the distance between the material or equipment and workers whenever possible. Shielding : When working closely with the material or when time cannot be limited, utilize appropriate shielding.
Using these basic concepts, workers can take the appropriate steps to ensure that their research duties are completed safely and in compliance with all applicable regulation, including the ALARA principle. It is important to note that the dose rate from radiation follows the Inverse Square Law, which means that the dose rate is decreased in proportion to the square of the distance from the source of radioactivity.
Therefore, distance can be a very effective way to reduce unnecessary dose. Typically, the personal protective equipment PPE required for working with radioactive materials is similar to what is required to work with most common laboratory chemicals.
The following represents the most basic PPE, but each lab may have additional chemical or biological hazards that necessitate more extensive PPE. Gloves : Good glove hygiene is of the utmost importance when working with radiological materials to prevent both contamination and additional dose to the worker. Always ensure the gloves used are chemically compatible with the materials used in any experiment.
Always dress appropriately for work with radiological materials, clothes that cover to the ankles and close toed, non-permeable shoes should be worn at all times. All areas that use radiological materials must be properly posted by HPS in accordance with the hazards contained within each area.
These are rooms, areas, or equipment that contain radioactive materials or where radioactive materials are used. All radiation use areas, shielding, and laboratory equipment used with radiologic materials will need to be labeled appropriately prior to use. Survey meters are used to find evidence of contamination or to establish a dose rate from a radioactive source.
There are a few choices in survey meter types, and it is important to know the limitations and benefits of each. Each laboratory that is approved for radioactive material use is required to survey the work area after each experiment and complete a documented survey of the entire lab area once a month. Not appropriate for H-3 or C HPS generally recommends a Ludlum with a pancake probe.
Used primarily by HPS staff. If any worker is unsure how to properly use their laboratory survey equipment, please contact HPS for guidance. All survey meters must be calibrated annually. The status of laboratory owned instruments will be assessed during the HPS quarterly inspections, and it will be marked as a deficiency if any meters are found to be out of calibration. If a meter is nearing its calibration date, please take the meter to the Research Safety offices on either campus so that HPS can perform a free calibration.
HPS can provide a loaner meter if needed until the instrument calibration is completed. If a laboratory utilizes nuclides that are not easily monitored with a hand-held survey meter, such as H-3, LSC wipe tests will need to be performed. Remember, wipe tests must be performed after each use of material and again once a month for the required monthly surveys.
For guidance on how to properly perform a wipe test, please contact HPS. There are three basic types of contamination and the risks associated with each type must be well understood. It is the responsibility of the Radiation Workers and PIs, in conjunction with HPS, to mitigate, prevent, and clean all types of contamination found in the work area. Frequent spot checks with appropriate survey meters and proper glove technique are some of the best ways to prevent the spread of the most common types of contamination.
This includes items that do not need a license to be obtained, such as anti-static strips or uranyl acetate. To ensure that all radioactive materials are properly routed, please use the following codes when placing any orders:.
Be sure that the Attention field includes the name of the authorized PI. The description field must include the radionuclide being ordered as well as the requested activity and its chemical form.
All orders must include all of these elements. All radioactive materials ordered will be delivered directly to the laboratory along with all associated Radionuclide Inventory Forms. All authorized laboratories must maintain an inventory form for each source or stock vial in their possession. Authorized Investigators must implement and maintain all reasonable precautions to control and secure all radioactive sources, even small check sources.
All sources of radiation must be secured against unauthorized access or possible removal except when in immediate use. Authorized Investigators must ensure that there is a one-to-one correlation between stock vials or sources and inventory forms.
This likely will be reviewed during random IEMA laboratory inspections. If radioactive samples need to be shipped outside the University or between campuses, please contact HPS for assistance at least two weeks in advance.
If a spill occurs while working with radiological materials, the situation must be assessed quickly and the spill responded to appropriately. For most spills, ordinary detergents and water, applied with disposable cleaning materials will be adequate.
Always conduct decontamination efforts in a manner that minimizes the dose to workers from external exposure, contamination and intake. Regardless of the size of the spill, if it is suspected that a worker became contaminated during the incident; please contact HPS immediately for guidance. Any spill the laboratory believes they need help cleaning, containing or surveying is considered a large-scale spill. If any material contaminates a worker, remove all affected clothing and flush any skin contamination.
If skin contamination is suspected, begin decontamination measures immediately and have others call HPS for assistance. Washing with lukewarm water and copious amounts of soap is extremely effective at removing most types of skin contamination, however any scrubbing should be performed lightly, being sure not to abrade or break the skin.
HPS will provide guidance on how to continue. During an emergency, immediate safety is the priority , not the risk of potential contamination. In the event of a fire or natural disaster alarm, immediately evacuate the laboratory, even if radiological materials are left out. Do not wait to check hands or feet for contamination. In the case of a medical emergency involving a person working with radiological materials, call and do not attempt to decontaminate or move the person away from the source of radiation unless it can be done safely without causing further injury.
Emergencies with radiation producing devices are rare and easily mitigated. With the exception of source irradiators, radiation producing devices can only produce radiation when energized; when the switch is turned off or the plug is pulled, radiation is no longer emitted.
Source irradiators are designed so that the sources return to a safe and shielded position if the power fails. Accidental exposure to radiation from these types of devices may not be immediately apparent, it is important that all incidents or suspected incidents are reported to HPS. When submitting a radioactive waste pick-up request in Lumen, ensure that every step is completed. All waste must be properly staged and ready for immediate removal prior to the submission of any waste requests.
Ensure the accuracy of the contents of the waste to be picked up, and the activity of each radionuclide contained therein. Ensure all radioactive symbols and labels are defaced with a permanent marker before placing them in a bag and container for collection by Research Safety. Dry solid waste includes empty stock vials, paper, plastic, gloves, non-lead lined plastic pigs and similar laboratory waste.
While the radioactive waste container is in use, be sure to keep the lid closed, but not sealed, to limit contamination and exposure risk. Once the radioactive waste container is ready to be picked up, ensure the interior bag is sealed with a zip tie and the container lid is closed tightly. When not in use, ensure the container is closed or a Research Safety provided funnel is in use.
Once the waste is ready to be picked up, request a pick-up through Lumen. Ensure the container label information is complete and matches Lumen waste pickup request. Please note that for a liquid waste pickup request, all the constituents of the liquid and their percentages must be entered in Lumen at the time of submission. Please enter the full chemical names with no abbreviations.
Remove funnel, if used, and seal container. Ensure all funnels are labeled and set aside for future use. This category is only for vials that were used in a scintillation counter. While in use, ensure the bucket has its lid on top to limit contamination and spill risks. Once ready to be picked up, seal the interior bag and tightly close the lid.
Sharps include needles, syringes with or without needles , razor blades, t-pins, scalpel blades, pipette tips, slides etc. If there is a question of whether an item should be designated a sharp, please contact HPS for guidance. While in use, sharps containers must be kept closed. Once ready to be picked up, seal the lid securely with lab tape.
This outer casing provides shielding for the interior vial. The lead contained in these pigs must be surveyed by HPS so that they may be recycled.
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